Name:- Hetal Dabhi
Paper no:-7
The literary terms
Post modernism
a late 20th-century style and concept in the arts, architecture, and criticism, which represents a departure from modernism and is characterized by the self-conscious use of earlier styles and conventions, a mixing of different artistic styles and media, and a general distrust of theories.
Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late 20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism and that marked a departure from modernism. The term has also more generally been applied to the historical era following modernity and the tendencies of this era.
While encompassing a wide variety of approaches, postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of skepticism, irony, or rejection toward the meta-narratives and ideologies of modernism, often calling into question various assumptions of Enlightenment rationality.[5] Consequently, common targets of postmodern critique include universalist notions of objective reality, morality, truth, human nature, reason, language, and social progress.[5] Postmodern thinkers frequently call attention to the contingent or socially-conditioned nature of knowledge claims and value systems, situating them as products of particular political, historical, or cultural discourses and hierarchies.[5] Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to self-referentiality, epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, and irreverence.
The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism.[25] J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing: "The raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernismby being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
New criticism
New Criticism was a formalist movement in literary theory that dominated Americanliterary criticism in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The movement derived its name from John Crowe Ransom's 1941 book The New Criticism.
The work of Cambridge scholar I. A. Richards, especially his Practical Criticism and The Meaning of Meaning, which offered what was claimed to be an empirical scientific approach, were important to the development of New Critical methodology.[1] Also very influential were the critical essays of T. S. Eliot, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems", in which Eliot developed his notion of the "objective correlative". Eliot's evaluative judgments, such as his condemnation of Milton and Dryden, his liking for the so-called metaphysical poets and his insistence that poetry must be impersonal, greatly influenced the formation of the New Critical canon.
Diaspora
The definition of a diaspora is the dispersion of people from their homeland or a community formed by people who have exited or been removed from their homeland. ... An example of a diaspora is a community of Jewish people settled together after they were dispersed from another land.
Diaspora means “to scatter” in Greek, but today we use the term to describe a community of people who live outside their shared country of origin or ancestry but maintain active connections with it. A diaspora includes both emigrants and their descendants.
A corporate, communal, or shared diasporic. identity is defined by the relationships between the dispersed; Distance from one's. motherland generates a sense of loss (Dutta-Bergman & Pal, 2005; Liao, 2005). The diasporic. experience tends to focus on a collective memory of a lost homeland, childhood, cultural.
The definition of a diaspora is the dispersion of people from their homeland or a community formed by people who have exited or been removed from their homeland. An example of a diaspora is the 6th century exile of Jews from outside Israel to Babylon.
Diaspora, populations, such as members of an ethnic or religious group, that originated from the same place but dispersed to different locations. The word diaspora comes from the ancient Greek dia speiro, meaning “to sow over.” The concept of diaspora has long been used to refer to the Greeks in the Hellenic world and to the Jews after the fall of Jerusalem in the early 6th century BCE. Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, scholars began to use it with reference to the African diaspora, and the use of the term was extended further in the following decades.
Evolution Of The Concept Of Diaspora
The concept of diaspora did not figure prominently in the social sciences until the late 1960s; the use of the plural form of the word came later still. Notwithstanding its Greek origins, the term formerly referred primarily to the Jewish experience, particularly the expulsion of Jewish people from their homeland to Babylonia (the Babylonian Exile) as well as the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. The term, then, carried a sense of loss, as the dispersal of the Jewish population was caused by their loss of territory. Nonetheless, since ancient times the concept has also been used in a positive though much less-influential way to refer to the Greek colonization of the Mediterranean lands from the shores of present-day Turkey and Crimea to the Strait of Gibraltar, between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.
Postcolonial criticism
Postcolonial criticism analyzes and critiques the literature, poetry, drama, and prose fiction of writers who are subjects of countries that were governed by or that were colonies of other nations, primarily England and France, and, to a lesser extent, the United States. Postcolonial criticism deals mainly with the literatures of Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean by analyzing the interactions between the culture, customs, and history of indigenous peoples and of the colonial power that governs. Postcolonial criticism is part of a larger field called cultural studies, or race and ethnicity studies.
To understand the importance of postcolonial literature, a reader should understand the scope of European involvement in the lives of people around the world. Between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, European countries conquered, governed, and otherwise had interests in the majority of nations around the world. Colonialism had begun principally through mercantilism and the protection of mercantile companies, such as the British East India Company, by the British navy and the navies of other trading countries. By the mid-twentieth century, however, domination by Europe began to end, as colonized countries staged successful independence movements. By 1980, Britain had lost all but a few of its colonial holdings; Hong Kong remained British until 1997 and Australia remained British until 1999.
Postcolonial literary criticism is a recent development. Formerly known as commonwealth studies, postcolonial literary studies includes examinations of works by authors from colonized nations. After nationalism, indigenous novelists and poets finally were able to express freely their own thoughts and feelings about the effects of the long-term conquest of their peoples, their traditions, and their customs. Although some literature from the East originated in these early days of colonial rule, the great mass of postcolonial literature began as colonies gained their independence.
Edward Said
A list of the most influential postcolonial critics would have to begin with Edward W. Said (1935-2003), whose Orientalism (1978) is considered a foundational work in postcolonial studies. Said has a special place in postcolonial studies in part because of the uniqueness of his birth and education.
He was born in Jerusalem while it was still a British protectorate, and he was educated in Egypt, England, and in the United States, where he received his doctorate from Harvard University. He taught at Columbia University for many years, won a number of honors, and was well-regarded in his profession.
Feminist criticism
Feminist literary criticism recognizes that since literature both reflects culture and shapes it, literary studies can either perpetuate the oppression of women or help to eliminate it. Thus, feminist literary critics are motivated to raise questions about literature and literary criticism that are basic to women’s struggle for autonomy: How does literature represent women and define gender relations? Why has literary criticism ignored or devalued women’s writing? How does one’s gender alter the way in which one reads literature? Is there a feminine mode of writing?
Unlike other schools of critical theory, feminist literary criticism does not trace its roots to a single author who established a unified theory. In fact, it is more appropriate to speak of feminist literary practices than of a practice. As an interdisciplinary study borrowing heavily from a broad range of disciplines, including history, sociology, psychology, and linguistics, feminist literary criticism is really a number of feminist approaches to literature, each embracing its own critical school or combination of methodologies. For example, sociohistorical feminist critics examine literature in an effort to understand its representations of women and the culture and writers that produced them, Marxist feminist critics study literature for instances of female oppression, psychoanalytic, critics focus on the unconscious, and linguists attempt to discern if differences exist between male and female uses of language. Also contributing to the eclectic nature of feminist literary criticism are its multiple positions, including lesbian and African American feminism, and its particular developments, such as socialist feminism in Great Britain.
Despite the variety of feminist approaches to literary study, practitioners of feminist literary criticism do share common beliefs. First, feminist literary critics accept the basic tenet of feminism: that the injustice of women’s oppression must be eliminated. Second, feminist critics believe literary history is shaped by androcentric biases, and, since men and women read differently, that gender is a crucial factor in the creation and interpretation of literary texts. Third, feminist critics argue that all literary study is subjective and value-driven, even that which pretends to be most objective. Finally, feminist critics acknowledge their political agenda and through feminist readings of literature hope to redress the marginalization of women in literary history and thereby to serve the larger aim of feminism—to subvert patriarchy and to change the world.
Paper no:-7
The literary terms
Post modernism
a late 20th-century style and concept in the arts, architecture, and criticism, which represents a departure from modernism and is characterized by the self-conscious use of earlier styles and conventions, a mixing of different artistic styles and media, and a general distrust of theories.
Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the mid- to late 20th century across philosophy, the arts, architecture, and criticism and that marked a departure from modernism. The term has also more generally been applied to the historical era following modernity and the tendencies of this era.
While encompassing a wide variety of approaches, postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of skepticism, irony, or rejection toward the meta-narratives and ideologies of modernism, often calling into question various assumptions of Enlightenment rationality.[5] Consequently, common targets of postmodern critique include universalist notions of objective reality, morality, truth, human nature, reason, language, and social progress.[5] Postmodern thinkers frequently call attention to the contingent or socially-conditioned nature of knowledge claims and value systems, situating them as products of particular political, historical, or cultural discourses and hierarchies.[5] Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to self-referentiality, epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, and irreverence.
The term postmodern was first used around the 1880s. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism.[25] J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing: "The raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernismby being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition."
New criticism
New Criticism was a formalist movement in literary theory that dominated Americanliterary criticism in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The movement derived its name from John Crowe Ransom's 1941 book The New Criticism.
The work of Cambridge scholar I. A. Richards, especially his Practical Criticism and The Meaning of Meaning, which offered what was claimed to be an empirical scientific approach, were important to the development of New Critical methodology.[1] Also very influential were the critical essays of T. S. Eliot, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His Problems", in which Eliot developed his notion of the "objective correlative". Eliot's evaluative judgments, such as his condemnation of Milton and Dryden, his liking for the so-called metaphysical poets and his insistence that poetry must be impersonal, greatly influenced the formation of the New Critical canon.
Diaspora
The definition of a diaspora is the dispersion of people from their homeland or a community formed by people who have exited or been removed from their homeland. ... An example of a diaspora is a community of Jewish people settled together after they were dispersed from another land.
Diaspora means “to scatter” in Greek, but today we use the term to describe a community of people who live outside their shared country of origin or ancestry but maintain active connections with it. A diaspora includes both emigrants and their descendants.
A corporate, communal, or shared diasporic. identity is defined by the relationships between the dispersed; Distance from one's. motherland generates a sense of loss (Dutta-Bergman & Pal, 2005; Liao, 2005). The diasporic. experience tends to focus on a collective memory of a lost homeland, childhood, cultural.
The definition of a diaspora is the dispersion of people from their homeland or a community formed by people who have exited or been removed from their homeland. An example of a diaspora is the 6th century exile of Jews from outside Israel to Babylon.
Diaspora, populations, such as members of an ethnic or religious group, that originated from the same place but dispersed to different locations. The word diaspora comes from the ancient Greek dia speiro, meaning “to sow over.” The concept of diaspora has long been used to refer to the Greeks in the Hellenic world and to the Jews after the fall of Jerusalem in the early 6th century BCE. Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, scholars began to use it with reference to the African diaspora, and the use of the term was extended further in the following decades.
Evolution Of The Concept Of Diaspora
The concept of diaspora did not figure prominently in the social sciences until the late 1960s; the use of the plural form of the word came later still. Notwithstanding its Greek origins, the term formerly referred primarily to the Jewish experience, particularly the expulsion of Jewish people from their homeland to Babylonia (the Babylonian Exile) as well as the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. The term, then, carried a sense of loss, as the dispersal of the Jewish population was caused by their loss of territory. Nonetheless, since ancient times the concept has also been used in a positive though much less-influential way to refer to the Greek colonization of the Mediterranean lands from the shores of present-day Turkey and Crimea to the Strait of Gibraltar, between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.
Postcolonial criticism
Postcolonial criticism analyzes and critiques the literature, poetry, drama, and prose fiction of writers who are subjects of countries that were governed by or that were colonies of other nations, primarily England and France, and, to a lesser extent, the United States. Postcolonial criticism deals mainly with the literatures of Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean by analyzing the interactions between the culture, customs, and history of indigenous peoples and of the colonial power that governs. Postcolonial criticism is part of a larger field called cultural studies, or race and ethnicity studies.
To understand the importance of postcolonial literature, a reader should understand the scope of European involvement in the lives of people around the world. Between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries, European countries conquered, governed, and otherwise had interests in the majority of nations around the world. Colonialism had begun principally through mercantilism and the protection of mercantile companies, such as the British East India Company, by the British navy and the navies of other trading countries. By the mid-twentieth century, however, domination by Europe began to end, as colonized countries staged successful independence movements. By 1980, Britain had lost all but a few of its colonial holdings; Hong Kong remained British until 1997 and Australia remained British until 1999.
Postcolonial literary criticism is a recent development. Formerly known as commonwealth studies, postcolonial literary studies includes examinations of works by authors from colonized nations. After nationalism, indigenous novelists and poets finally were able to express freely their own thoughts and feelings about the effects of the long-term conquest of their peoples, their traditions, and their customs. Although some literature from the East originated in these early days of colonial rule, the great mass of postcolonial literature began as colonies gained their independence.
Edward Said
A list of the most influential postcolonial critics would have to begin with Edward W. Said (1935-2003), whose Orientalism (1978) is considered a foundational work in postcolonial studies. Said has a special place in postcolonial studies in part because of the uniqueness of his birth and education.
He was born in Jerusalem while it was still a British protectorate, and he was educated in Egypt, England, and in the United States, where he received his doctorate from Harvard University. He taught at Columbia University for many years, won a number of honors, and was well-regarded in his profession.
Feminist criticism
Feminist literary criticism recognizes that since literature both reflects culture and shapes it, literary studies can either perpetuate the oppression of women or help to eliminate it. Thus, feminist literary critics are motivated to raise questions about literature and literary criticism that are basic to women’s struggle for autonomy: How does literature represent women and define gender relations? Why has literary criticism ignored or devalued women’s writing? How does one’s gender alter the way in which one reads literature? Is there a feminine mode of writing?
Unlike other schools of critical theory, feminist literary criticism does not trace its roots to a single author who established a unified theory. In fact, it is more appropriate to speak of feminist literary practices than of a practice. As an interdisciplinary study borrowing heavily from a broad range of disciplines, including history, sociology, psychology, and linguistics, feminist literary criticism is really a number of feminist approaches to literature, each embracing its own critical school or combination of methodologies. For example, sociohistorical feminist critics examine literature in an effort to understand its representations of women and the culture and writers that produced them, Marxist feminist critics study literature for instances of female oppression, psychoanalytic, critics focus on the unconscious, and linguists attempt to discern if differences exist between male and female uses of language. Also contributing to the eclectic nature of feminist literary criticism are its multiple positions, including lesbian and African American feminism, and its particular developments, such as socialist feminism in Great Britain.
Despite the variety of feminist approaches to literary study, practitioners of feminist literary criticism do share common beliefs. First, feminist literary critics accept the basic tenet of feminism: that the injustice of women’s oppression must be eliminated. Second, feminist critics believe literary history is shaped by androcentric biases, and, since men and women read differently, that gender is a crucial factor in the creation and interpretation of literary texts. Third, feminist critics argue that all literary study is subjective and value-driven, even that which pretends to be most objective. Finally, feminist critics acknowledge their political agenda and through feminist readings of literature hope to redress the marginalization of women in literary history and thereby to serve the larger aim of feminism—to subvert patriarchy and to change the world.
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